How Principle of Photovoltaic Cells Works

The generation of electrical energy in solar cells occurs based on the photoelectric effect that is the effect that occurs due to photons with certain wavelengths which if the energy is greater than the semiconductor threshold energy, it will be absorbed by electrons so the electrons move from the valence band (N) to the conduction band (P) and leaving the hole in the valence band, then two charges, the electron-hole pair are generated. The electron-hole flow that occurs when connected to an electrical load through the conductor will produce an electric current.

For more details we can see in the picture.

State Of Charge (SOC) Battery

BATTERY. Rechargeable batteries are widely used today as temporary energy storage. The battery has the voltage and capacity indicated on the battery. The capacity of the battery is written in units of Ah (ampere-hour) which means the amount of current that a battery can supply in one hour. In general, the equation used to calculate battery capacity is as follows:

C = I x t, where C is capacity, I is Ampere and t is time.

The process of charging (charging) on the battery is done by connecting it to the power source according to the voltage that has been adjusted. After that the electrical energy in the battery can be discharged (emptied/used) to the electrical load. But when the charge (charging) has a maximum voltage limit that must not be bypassed. At the time of discharge (usage) there is also a minimum voltage limit. If these limits are exceeded can cause the battery to damage quickly. This voltage limit is different for each battery depending on the type. The following voltage limits for commonly used today.

Table Voltage limits on several types of batteries

State of Charge	Sealed or Flooded Lead Acid	Gel battery	AGM battery
100%	12.70+	12.85+	12.80+
75%	12.40	12.65	12.60
50%	12.20	12.35	12.30
25%	12.00	12.00	12.00
0%	11.80	11.80	11.80

So that some article about battery limit.
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Calculate the mcb rating (circuit breaker)

For calculate mcb rating we need know current or Ampere (I) of electrical load. For calculate it we use formula :

I load = P/V

for, I load : current load, P : power, and V : Voltage

Ex : I Load 500 W 220 V

P : 50 W
V : 220V

so, I = 500W / 220V
      I = 2.27 A

Now to calculate MCB rating we can use formula

I mcb = I load × 125 %


Ex : I load = 2.27 A so,

 I mcb = 2.27 A x 125 % = 2.84 A or 3 A for MCB rating who use.



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Calculation of Delta and Star Circuits Bank Capacitors

How to Calculation of Delta and Star Circuit's Bank Capacitors. In a three-phase system, a series of capacitor connections can be in the form of delta links and star connections. If the reactive power of a three-phase capacitor is known, the magnitude of the capacitance of the capacitor can be calculated, both the delta and star circuit.

• Delta Circuit

Definition of Flashover and Sparkover

Flashover

           Flashover is a disorder that occurs in the form of sparks that occur between insulator component or high voltage electricity. This can occur due to failure of the insulation of the high voltage system.The failure of the electrical insulator can be caused by the presence of small cavities in solid dielectric (porcelain) or due to the occurrence of flashover along the insulator surface. Small cavities in the insulator caused by isolator is made less than perfect at the time of manufacture, thereby insulating the electrical characteristics of the poor. A small cavity in the isolator will eventually cause mechanical damage to the insulator. The occurrence of flashover causes damage to the insulator by heat generated due to arc along the insulator surface. Therefore, the insulator must be made such that the voltage on a small cavity is higher than the voltage that causes flashover.

           Failure flashover (flashover) began with the formation of a dry band (dry band). As previously explained, that the formation of conductive layer on the surface of the insulator caused by the presence of pollutants that stick. Layer formed on the insulator surface is causing the flow of leakage current (leakage current). With the flow of leakage current, the heating occurs in the layer. This layer can form a ribbon of dry (dry band) due to leakage current flowing continuously. At a certain voltage, this condition can cause discharge across the dry band. A discharge can be elongated to form an electric arc (arc) and occur flashover (flashover) through the entire surface of the insulator.